Toward a Synthetic Theory of Tolerance for Carnivores: Learning from a Half-Century of Research on Attitudes Toward Wolves

Authors

• Jeremy T. Bruskotter, Michigan State University
• John A. Vucetich, Michigan Technological UniversityFollow
• Lisa Naughton-Treves, University of Wisconsin-Madison
• José Vicente López-Bao, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
• Benjamin Ghasemi
• Nicole D. Sintov, The Ohio State University
• Tara L. Teel, Warner College of Natural Resources
• Neil H. Carter, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
• L. Mark Elbroch, Panthera USA
• Adrian Treves, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Document Type

Article

Publication Date

6-1-2026

Department

College of Forest Resources and Environmental Science

Abstract

Human intolerance is a critical factor limiting both the distributions and populations of large carnivores. Using gray wolves as a case study, we synthesize a half-century of scholarship with the aims of clarifying the conceptual foundations of “tolerance” and integrating insights from across the social sciences. Specifically, we review longitudinal studies of attitudes toward wolves and show how trends vary across the populations examined. We then identify and discuss three complementary theories that help explain variation in tolerance across individuals, social groups, and societies: (1) Risk–benefit theories illuminate how perceptions of risks, benefits, and controllability shape individuals’ tolerance of carnivores; (2) Modernization theory explains societal shifts in values and shows how reduced threats from carnivores impact tolerance at the societal level; and (3) Social Identity Theory highlights how identification with interest groups (e.g., hunters, environmentalists) shape beliefs in a manner that serves to exacerbate inter-group conflicts. Linking these theoretical perspectives provides a more holistic framework for understanding why tolerance can change within populations, and why inter-group conflicts persist even as societal attitudes have become more favorable. We conclude by outlining research priorities aimed at improving our understanding of tolerance and the conditions that allow for human–carnivore coexistence.

Publisher's Statement

Copyright: © 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Publisher’s version of record: https://doi.org/10.3390/conservation6020042

Publication Title

Conservation

Recommended Citation

Bruskotter, J., Vucetich, J. A., Naughton-Treves, L., López-Bao, J., Ghasemi, B., Sintov, N., Teel, T., Carter, N., Elbroch, L., & Treves, A. (2026). Toward a Synthetic Theory of Tolerance for Carnivores: Learning from a Half-Century of Research on Attitudes Toward Wolves. Conservation, 6(2). http://doi.org/10.3390/conservation6020042
Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/michigantech-p2/2754

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Version

Publisher's PDF