Date of Award
2026
Document Type
Open Access Dissertation
Degree Name
Doctor of Philosophy in Integrative Physiology (PhD)
Administrative Home Department
Department of Kinesiology and Integrative Physiology
Advisor 1
Steven J. Elmer
Advisor 2
Erich J. Petushek
Committee Member 1
Shalaya Kipp
Committee Member 2
Brent C. Ruby
Committee Member 3
John McDaniel
Committee Member 4
Carolyn A. Duncan
Abstract
Background: For millennia humans have traveled on snow in temperate, sub-polar, and Arctic regions for hunting and migration. Human locomotion on snow presents physiological challenges which increase cost of transport (i.e., metabolic energy required to move a given distance). The evolution of passive tools such as cross-country skis has enabled humans to move on snow with a lower cost of transport. While skiing provides clear advantages for travel on snow, historical accounts from the Alaskan Gold Rush, world record trips to the South Pole, and results from winter ultra-endurance racing suggest that bicycling may offer even greater benefits. Purpose: To determine which exercise mode (bicycling, cross-country skiing, foot) is best for travel on packed snow. Methods: Part 1: I analyzed results from four North American winter ultra-endurance races (2000 to 2025) spanning distances of 129 to 1,609 km to determine the effect of exercise mode on race performance. Part 2: I compared cost of transport between bicycling and cross-country skiing on snow. Athletes (N=8) bicycled and skied a 1.54 km course at three sub-maximal speeds (3.9, 4.4, 4.8 m.s-1) while respiratory gases were measured using indirect calorimetry. Part 3: I assessed total energy expenditure and water turnover using doubly labeled water in the 2025 Arrowhead Ultra (~214 km) winner. Results: Part 1: Analysis from 82 total years of results (~304,000 km of trail; 2,986 race finishers) demonstrated that bicycling consistently had the fastest finish times, race speeds, and highest success rates when compared to skiing and foot travel. Part 2: Bicycling demonstrated an 8% lower cost of transport compared to cross-country skiing (2.89 vs 3.13 J.kg-1.m-1; p=0.0001). Part 3: Total energy expenditure during the Arrowhead Ultra (63.9 MJ) matched the highest values recorded in humans (9 to 10x BMR) and water turnover (10.5 L.12hr-1) was elevated similar to exercise in the heat. Conclusion: Collectively, my dissertation 1) supports my working hypothesis that bicycling offers advantages for travel on packed snow, 2) provides novel insights into how passive tools enable humans to move on variable terrain, and 3) has practical implications for winter ultra-endurance racing, military excursions, and polar exploration.
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 License.
Recommended Citation
Wehmanen, Kyle W., "HUMAN LOCOMOTION ON SNOW: A CASE FOR THE BICYCLE", Open Access Dissertation, Michigan Technological University, 2026.