Additive manufacturing of granular analogue soils: feasibility studies and mechanical characterization

Document Type

Article

Publication Date

1-2026

Department

Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geospatial Engineering

Abstract

The use of additive manufacturing (AM) technology for advancements in engineering applications has grown in recent years; however, limitations still exist regarding its use in geotechnical and transportation engineering related applications. This study presents the potential of AM advancements in civil engineering applications for creating analogue soils and offers valuable insights into material type, manufacturing methods (i.e., material orientation), and post-manufactured material mechanical properties. A variety of AM technologies and materials were tested to determine the most suitable product for experimental testing and model validation studies. Based on uniaxial compression tests (UCS), the Powder Bed Binder Jetting (PBBJ) gypsum composite and Selective Laster Sintering (SLS) photopolymer are determined as suitable materials, with the gypsum composite preferred for its stiffness and brittle behavior. Print layer orientation influences compressive strength, with a 5% increase observed in vertical orientation compared to horizontal, while static Young’s modulus remains minimally affected. From compression tests on spheres and cylinders, it is observed that the contact Young’s modulus, determined using Hertzian fitting for spheres, is considerably lower than the static Young’s modulus derived from traditional UCS tests. This discrepancy can be attributed to the pronounced surface roughness of the gypsum composite spheres. Additionally, as particle size increases, there is a noticeable decrease in nominal tensile strength. The findings from drained triaxial compression tests on the analogue soil suggest its capability to replicate the response of conventional granular materials under realistic confining stresses. Denser assemblies exhibit higher peak friction angles and volume dilatancy as compared to loose assemblies. For loose assemblies, particularly for the gypsum composite material, inter-particle friction played a significant role in the mobilized (critical state) friction angle. The use of analogue soils is advantageous for laboratory parametric studies and provides a novel means to validate discrete element method (DEM) numerical simulations, which provide further insight on granular material response.

Publication Title

Transportation Geotechnics

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