Document Type

Article

Publication Date

9-2025

Department

Department of Chemistry; Department of Biological Sciences; Department of Biomedical Engineering

Abstract

Heavy metals are ubiquitous environmental pollutants, contaminating air, soil, and water via the erosion of natural deposits, as well as originating from anthropogenic sources, such as agriculture, industries, transportation, and landfills. The increasing utilization of heavy metals over the years, combined with the persistent nature of metals in the environment poses a direct threat to human and environment health. Although regulatory limits have been established for toxic metals, assessing the associated health risks using real-life exposure scenarios remains challenging. In this review, we summarize the development and use of in vitro models based two- and three-dimensional cell culture systems, focusing on exposure to heavy metals via the dermal, inhalation, and ingestion routes using environmental samples. We also highlight recent developments in three-dimensional cell culture techniques and their potential for implementation in evaluating environmental samples for heavy metal toxicity. In addition, we assess the comparative strengths and specific applications of different modeling approaches, emphasizing the value of integrating advanced in vitro systems in environmental toxicology. (Figure presented.)

Publisher's Statement

© The Author(s) 2025. Publisher’s version of record: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-025-2085-5

Publication Title

Frontiers of Environmental Science and Engineering

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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